This fragment includes verses from the 17th chapter of the Koran entitled Bani Isra’il (the Children of Israel) or al-Isra’ (the Night Journey). Calligrapher unknown. 9th century. 7.5 x 4 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division.

This manuscript is a fragment of a pilgrimage guide for Muslims going on Hajj. Although the text is not signed and certain additions may have been made later, it is possible that this fragment was executed by Yaqut al-Musta’simi himself. Attributed to Yaqut al-Musta’simi. 13th century. 25 x 4 cm. Thuluth script. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division.

This fragment includes the last verse (110) of the 18th chapter of the Koran entitled surah al-Kahf (the Cave), and is executed in a script called plaited kufic. Calligrapher: unknown. 11th-13th centuries. 20.2 x 10.7 cm. Plaited eastern kufic and Persian naskh scripts. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division.

This calligraphic fragment contains, on the left side, verse 21 of the 24th chapter of the Koran entitled al-Nur (the Light). Calligrapher: unknown. 12th century. 5 x 8.8 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division.

This Koranic fragment includes verses 35-36 of the 40th chapter of the Koran entitled al-Ghafir (the Forgiver), also known as al-Mu’min (the Believer). Calligrapher: unknown. 11th-12th centuries. 7.8 x 15.5 cm. Eastern Kufic script. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division.

This calligraphic fragment includes verses 85-88 of the 6th chapter of the Koran entitled surah al-An’am (the Cattle). This late Meccan surah describes the nature of God and how He reveals Himself. Calligrapher: unknown. 9th century. 23.8 x 14.7 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division.

This calligraphic fragment includes verses 12-38 of the 39th chapter of the Koran entitled surah al-Zumar (the Crowds). This Meccan surah is the last of a series of six chapters, which describe the mysteries of the spiritual world and the Hereafter. It describes creation, as well as God’s unity, justice, and mercy. Calligrapher: unknown. 11th-12th centuries. 15 x 24 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division.

This manuscript contains verses from the Koranic sura (chapter) entitled al-Fath (Victory). Possibly Iraq. 9th century. 23.7 x 33.6 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.

The flowing movement of the script used here, with its sweeping curves and slightly rounded letters, is characteristic of the maghribi script. North Africa. 13th century. 16.5 x 15.5 cm. Maghribi script. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.

12th century Koran from Andalusia (Spain).

Pen boxes were an essential part of a calligrapher’s equipment. In addition to containing an ink pot, a pen box would have held several carefully made reed plumes, a pair of scissors, a knife for shaping the plumes, and an assortment of other necessary items. Along the sides of the box an Arabic inscription in animated script is set against a scrolling background of animal heads. Calligrapher: Shazi. Iran. 1210-1211 A.D. 5 x 31.4 cm. Other/unnamed script. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.

From at least the ninth century onward, volumes of the Koran were embellished with designs in color and gold. The folio on the left marks the beginning of chapter 35, titled al-Sabah (the angels). Possibly Iran. 10th century. 12.2 x 16 cm. Eastern kufic script. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.

Pen boxes were an essential part of a calligrapher’s equipment. In addition to containing an ink pot, a pen box would have held several carefully made reed plumes, a pair of scissors, a knife for shaping the plumes, and an assortment of other necessary items. Along the sides of the box an Arabic inscription in animated script is set against a scrolling background of animal heads. Calligrapher: Shazi. Iran. 1210-1211 A.D. 5 x 31.4 cm. Other/unnamed script. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.

Calligraphers in the Maghrib (i.e. North Africa and Spain) favored thin, light letters with deep flourishes that curve below the line and create a rhythmic effect, as seen in this folio. Iran. 11th–12th century. 32.3 x 21.4 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.

Early Korans were written in an angular script commonly known as kufic. Characterized by short vertical and long horizontal strokes, the script is also notable for the generous spaces between letters and words, which appear as significant as the shape and size of the letters themselves. By varying the thickness of the strokes or the intervals between both the letters and the words, calligraphers succeeded in introducing stylistic and visual variety within the strict canons of Koranic writing. The horizontal format, another common feature of early Korans, further accentuated the horizontal thrust of the script. Calligrapher: unknown. North Africa or Near East. Late 8th or early 9th century. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.

Although the oldest Korans that have survived (dating to the eighth century) avoid the use of ornamental devices and illuminations, by the ninth century they had become common. The background of this manuscript was originally tinted blue. North Africa (?). Late 9th to early 10th century. 28.3 x 39.8 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.

By using a series of different scripts (plaited kufic around the edges, naskh and kufic on the inner bands, and simple kufic just below the arch), carved on different planes, the calligrapher created an extremely rich surface that reverberates with the patterns of the lines. Calligrapher: Ahmad b. Muhammad b. Ahmad Asid. Iran. 1154-1155 A.D. 92.5 x 67.6 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.

This calligraphic fragment includes verses 105-114 of the 4th chapter of the Koran entitled al-Nisa’ (the Women). Calligrapher: unknown. 12th century. 22 x 28.5 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Library of Congress, African and Middle Eastern Division.

With the growing sophistication of inlay techniques in the thirteenth century, the art of calligraphy began to play a central role on metal objects. As this elegant stem bowl indicates, inscriptions often functioned as the principal means of embellishment. Most inscriptions consisted of blessings and short prayers addressed to anonymous patrons. The inscription on this bowl is particularly notable for its human-headed letters, a highly inventive style that developed in the thirteenth century and was used exclusively on metalwork intended for use in secular settings. Present-day Afghanistan, Herat. Early 13th century. 8.7 x 19.5 x 19.5 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution.

This calligraphic fragment includes verses 37 of the 4th chapter of the Koran, entitled al-Jathiyyah (the kneeling down), up until the 10th verse of the next chapter entitled al-Ahqaf (the winding sand tracts). Middle East or North Africa. Late 9th or early 10th century. 20.4 x 30.8 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

These pages are from one of the grandest Korans to survive from the Muslim Middle Ages. The Koran was most likely created at Kairouan, in the workshop of the calligrapher ‘Ali ibn Ahmad al Warraq. Probably North Africa. Early 11th century. 45 x 30 cm. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

This inkwell is an exceptional specimen of hardstone carving in medieval Islam. On the inkwell is written the Bismillah, as well as a Koranic inscription from surah al-Kahf (the Cave), verse 109: ‘Say: ‘If the ocean were Ink (wherewith to write out) The words of my Lord, Sooner would the ocean be Exhausted than would the words Of my Lord, even if we Added another ocean Like it, for its aid.’ Iran. 10th century. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

The fragmentary inscription on this marble frieze is not Koranic, but may refer to Ali. Eastern Iran, Afghanistan or North India. 12th or 13th century. Courtesy of the Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

The four figures in this dish exemplify the 12th-century Seljuk-Persian aesthetic of ‘moon-faced’ beauty. Iran, Kashan. Early 13th century. Other/unnamed script. Courtesy of the Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

The inscription on this bowl reads, “Generosity is a disposition of the dwellers of Paradise.” The letters are horizontally elongated to fit the available space. Iran, Nishapur. 10th century. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

This fragment contains the surah al-Fatihah (the Opening), and al-Baqarah (the Cow). The script is remarkable for its size, each line being roughly 4 cm high. Iran. Later 11th century. Kufic script. Courtesy of the Nasser D Khalili Collection of Islamic Art.

This folio is written in a mature eastern kufic script, characterized by elegantly formed letters and generous spaces between words. Following the introduction of paper in the late eighth century, eleventh-century calligraphers were able to write on relatively large sheets and experiment with the relationship of the text to the page as a whole. The verses here are from surah 8, entitled “al-Anfal” (the Spoils of War) and explain some of the advantages of military discipline. Probably eastern Iran. Late 11th century. Eastern kufic script. Courtesy of the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution.

This manuscript includes verses 34-36 from the fifth chapter of the Koran (the Table Spread). Iran. 1075-1100 A.D. Eastern kufic script. Courtesy of the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution.