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The Nature of Islamic Art

By Metropolitan Museum of Art on March 16, 2011 in Decorative, Philosophy · 0 Comments

The term Islamic art not only describes the art created specifically in the service of the Muslim faith (for example, a mosque and its furnishings) but also characterizes the art and architecture historically produced in the lands ruled by Muslims, produced for Muslim patrons, or created by Muslim artists. As it is not only a religion but a way of life, Islam fostered the development of a distinctive culture with its own unique artistic language that is reflected in art and architecture throughout the Muslim world.

This capital probably came from the splendid Umayyad royal residence city of Madinat al-Zahra’, near Córdoba, Spain, which was founded in 936. The classical tradition so important in Umayyad Syrian art is evident here. This is not surprising in light of the Syrian roots of this caliphal house (711–1031), which arose in Spain after the Umayyad dynasty was replaced and almost extinguished by the new cAbbasid rulers centered in Baghdad.

Bowl, 10th century Samarqand (Uzbekistan) or Nishapur (Iran): Inscriptions figure prominently in the decoration of objects and buildings throughout the history of Islamic art. Yet it is in Samanid bowls, such as this one, that they were used with an unequalled purity and power, both as calligraphy and to enhance the object they decorate. This bowl is an unusually large, especially fine example of its kind.

Pair of doors, ca. 1325–1330; Mamluk, Egypt (Cairo): The furnishings of Cairo's mosques, especially during the Mamluk period, were decorated with intricately constructed polygons and strapwork. Most often, the polygons were of wood, either carved or inlaid with ivory or colored woods. These doors exhibit a great variety of patterns, most of which are also found in other media, such as stone carvings, marble mosaics, and stucco window grilles. The accurate cutting required to make such patterned objects is remarkable, since every piece affects the whole. Comparative material in the Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo, suggests that these doors come from the minbar (pulpit) of the mosque of the emir Sayf al-Din Qawsun (d. 1342), the powerful Cupbearer of Sultan al-Nasir ibn Qala’un.

Textile fragment, 14th century; Nasrid, Spain:This silk textile fragment, of which the full loom width (hung vertically) is preserved, displays two scripts. The knotted kufic inscription woven in black repeats the word beatitude and runs on a wide red-ground border. The decorative calligraphy is in harmony with the geometric design of the fabric. The naskhi script, which reads, "good luck and prosperity," is less easily discernible, filling the small cartouches outlined in white lines within the narrower borders on both sides of the larger kufic band. The overall geometric design of the textile has close connections with architectural decoration, especially the stuccowork and wall tiles of Nasrid buildings. Similar woven textiles continued to be produced under Christian patronage after the fall of the Nasrid kingdom in 1492, testifying to their aesthetic appeal for Christians as well as Muslims.

The vegetal decoration surrounding the central figure resembles that found on fourteenth- and fifteenth-century tombstones of the town of Kubachi, presently in the republic of Daghestan in the Caucasus. This attribution is supported by the "cloud" collar that covers the rider's chest, which became fashionable after the arrival of the Mongols in the area and was popular in the fifteenth century. The horseman represents a traditional image of a Central Asian nomadic archer, symbolic of the Mongol roots of the Golden Horde (1227–1502). In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, between the Ilkhanid and the Timurid periods, this dynasty ruled over a large area in Russia, including the province of Daghestan on the north shore of the Caspian Sea. The horseman and his mount provide valuable information about costume and trappings in the Caucasus at this time. A short, tight-fitting short-sleeved tunic is worn over another garment. Tight-fitting high boots,a belt, and a hood reaching to the neck complete the costume

Jali screen (one of a pair), second half of 16th century; Mughal, India: Jalis (pierced screens) were used extensively in Indian architecture as windows, room dividers, and railings around thrones, platforms, terraces, and balconies. Installed in outer walls, they were ideal for cutting down glare while permitting air to circulate. During the day, the reflection of their patterns moving across the floor would double the pleasure of their intricate geometry. The architecture and weathering on one side suggest that this jali was probably part of a series of windows set in an outside wall.

Textile fragment, second half of 16th century; Ottoman, Turkey, Bursa or Istanbul:Ottoman textiles illustrate the taste of the period for splendid floral silks, used for garments and furnishings. This vertical pattern, formed by wavy stems, flowers, and leaves, appeared during the second half of the sixteenth century and is stylistically comparable to the ceramic wall tiles in buildings of the period. Swinging in rhythm from right to left on the undulating stalk are composite tulips and peonies, alternating within the curve of the stems. The flowers and leaves are further enhanced with miniature tulips and carnations, both favorite Ottoman motifs, and other naturalistic flowers.

During Roman and early Islamic times, a popular type of vessel was a single, double, or quadruple glass cosmetic tube intricately decorated with trailed glass threads. In the Islamic examples, these tubes are carried on the backs of domestic animals, and the trailed threads are meant to imitate wicker baskets or cages protecting the bottle.

Working Title/Artist: Double page from "The Nurse's Qur'an," Department: Islamic Art Culture/Period/Location: HB/TOA Date Code: 07 Working Date: 1019-20 photography by mma, DP167065.tif retouched by film and media (jnc) 4_9_09

he striped textiles of Yemen were famous in medieval times throughout the Islamic world. They were made in the ikat technique, in which the cotton warp threads were bundled together and resist-dyed before being arranged on the loom to form patterns of arrowheads and diamonds. The presence of fringe suggests that this fragment was part of a shawl. Inscriptions on Yemeni ikats are usually either embroidered or, as here, painted. These and other textiles bearing inscriptions were called tiraz, from the Persian word meaning "embroidery." They were produced in tiraz factories, some of which were commercial and others royal.

Possibly from the side of a cenotaph (a monument erected in honor of a person whose remains are elsewhere), this elaborate fig-wood panel inlaid with bone incorporates decorative elements from both the late antique and Sasanian traditions. The geometric motifs seem to derive directly from the Roman mosaic repertoire, and the carved bone plaques in the central section bear vine scrolls with a purely classical lineage. The winglike designs in the arch spandrels and the central square are of Sasanian derivation and were incorporated into the Islamic vocabulary as early as the late seventh century.

This impressive Qur’an stand, or rahla, one the most accomplished works in wood to survive from Iran, bears the signature of its carver, who was probably from Isfahan in central Iran. The splendid carved decoration, which includes the motif of a flowered bush within a niche surrounded by calligraphic blessings upon the Prophet and the Twelve Imams, reveals a Shici association. Other inscriptions include the date as well as the name of the patron who ordered this stand for a madrasa (theological school), but they do not give the name of the school or the city where it was located.

This lamp is the earliest datable example of its kind known to have hung in an interior that still survives. The inscription states that it was made for the tomb of the Mamluk emir Aydakin al-cAla'i al-Bunduqdar (died 1285) in Cairo. The emblem of the Keeper of the Bow, a pair of confronted bows against a red background, appears nine times on this lamp. A rare mistake by the calligrapher is evident on the neck, where the word bunduqdar (Keeper of the Bow) has been misspelled as a meaningless word, bunqud-dar.

These beads feature superb patterns of scrolling vines whose bifurcations elegantly extend the design to fit the required space. The patterns recall those of the beveled style of the ninth century, although these possess clearer lines, perhaps owing to the medium.

This figurine represents the relatively rare sculptural tradition within Islamic art. Although the function of this and other such Seljuq equestrian figures is not entirely known, they appear to portray significant personages. Here the overall symbolism conveyed is that of a warrior or hunter: the rider holds a cup, carries a short staff, and bears what appears to be a shield. The small animal seated behind the rider may be a hunting cheetah, and the hollowness of the object's upper section suggests a container-like function.

his carved tile was originally set into the facade of a building in present-day Uzbekistan. The central panel consists of a deeply carved Arabic inscription in plaited kufic script against a background of vegetal scrolls covered in a luminous transparent turquoise glaze. The inscription, which reads "[al-mulk] li-llah al-mu[lk li-llah]" (Sovereignty is for God. Sovereignty is for God), is framed by two narrow light blue borders and is crowned by a wide panel with seven vertical bands in alternating turquoise and white with a horizontal border in dark manganese at the top.

The Ottoman tughra is a calligraphic emblem of the sultan's authority that was included in all official documents, such as firmans (royal decrees), endowment papers, correspondence, and coins. Used by the first Ottoman sultan in 1324, it later developed into a more complex form that included three vertical shafts and two concentric oval loops on the left. It consists of the name of the reigning sultan, his father's name, his title, and the phrase "the eternally victorious." This unique calligraphic emblem was not easily read or copied. Therefore, a specific court artist was designated to draw the undecorated, standard tughra. A court illuminator assisted him in the exquisite decoration of the tughra on certain imperial documents. The illuminator's delicate scroll design and naturalistic flowers enhance the harmonious lines of calligraphy, creating a colorful voluminous effect.

This superbly illuminated page originally formed the right half of a double-page opening to a section of a Qur’an. It combines the three main Islamic types of nonfigural decoration: calligraphy, vegetal patterns, and geometric patterns. The vegetal patterns here are the classical scrolls utilized as the background to the calligraphy, within the compartments of the geometric interlace, and in the text frame and margin medallion. Two ground colors are used to introduce additional patterning.

Large basins for ablution that have a crenellated rim are based on eastern Iranian prototypes of the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. The best examples, with lavishly inlaid and detailed decoration such as those shown here, seem to have been limited to the Ilkhanid period. Figural scenes illustrating courtly life under the Ilkhanids, indicated by their Mongol robes and headdresses, are common on these basins. Typically, the interior is lavishly ornamented whereas the exterior walls are plain or simply engraved, thus demonstrating that the decoration was enjoyed mostly when these basins were in use.

When this rug was discovered, its unusual field design—rows of animals within animals—was otherwise known only in a rug depicted in a Sienese painting of about 1410, The Marriage of the Virgin by Gregorio di Cecco di Luca (National Gallery, London). The pattern of the painted version, partially obscured by standing figures, was not comprehensible without the Metropolitan's rug. The field design probably derives from medieval textiles patterned with single or paired animals in compartments. This purchase, hailed in rug-collecting circles, brought to the Museum one of the best preserved, earliest Turkish carpets in the world. Only two other carpets of a similar date are known.

This especially attractive and well-preserved turban-shaped helmet is stamped with the mark used in the Ottoman arsenals, indicating that it, like several other turban helmets in the collection, passed into Turkish possession as booty with the Ottoman conquest of Iran and Caucasus. At least one turban helmet decorated in a style comparable to this example bears the name of Farrukh-Siar (r. 1464–1501), ruler of Shivran in the Caucasus. Such evidence suggests that the Museum's helmet is also of Shivran manufacture.

This fragmentary carpet represents the highest level of Indian production, what might be called imperial grade. It looks and feels like velvet, but the pile is actually knotted from pashmina wool, made from the fleece of Himalayan mountain goats. The weave is extremely fine, especially for a carpet as large as this one must have been. What remains is approximately one-quarter of the original. In most Islamic cultures the finest carpets were woven in silk. Only in India was wool, admittedly a very special wool, prized more than silk. The style of this carpet, with its total reliance on floral forms, is consistent with the taste of the emperor Shah Jahan, as manifested also in the architectural decoration and manuscript margin illumination created by the gifted artists of his court.

The animals on this dish, some more recognizable than others, may derive from representations on Seljuq metalwork. The central design is, in effect, a painted menagerie, an approach not often attempted by Iznik potters before around 1570. Another group of animals pursue one another on the rim of the dish. The bold effect of the bright green ground is heightened by the potter's decision to leave the cavetto blank, in essence providing breathing room for the composition. Source: Dish [Iznik, Turkey] (1979.412) | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Textiles of the Safavid period demonstrate the technical mastery of the weavers as well as their strong dependence upon book illustration and illumination as a pattern source, at least in the products of court workshops. This example features a lattice pattern formed by staggered rows of lobed medallions. The princely pastime of falconry is the subject of the medallion scenes: the bird sits on her master's gloved hand while an attendant, holding a receptacle and a bag for the game, approaches. A duck flies away from the falconer. The background of these scenes was once covered with metal thread, now mostly worn

This panel of calligraphy conforms closely to the type probably established by the celebrated calligrapher Sultan cAli about forty or fifty years earlier. The border illumination is signed by the artist Daulat, who executed paintings and marginalia for three generations of Mughal emperors, from Akbar to Shah Jahan. Mir cAli was both the calligrapher and author

This carpet is known as a Star Ushak, from the star shape of its medallions and the weaving center from which it originates. In the use of a primary star-shaped medallion on a field containing a secondary floral scroll, the Anatolians no doubt were influenced by northwest Persian book design, as seen in buildings or illumination, or by Persian medallion carpets. Unlike the Ottoman medallion carpets of Cairo and Bursa, the ground scroll here is secondary to the medallion scheme. The blue medallions on the red ground are the traditional colors of these carpets. Star Ushaks, extremely popular in the West and copied there, are portrayed in European paintings as early as the second quarter of the sixteenth century.

This album, known as the "Bellini" Album because it once contained a portrait of a Turkish prince by the Italian artist Gentile Bellini, was almost certainly assembled in Turkey during the first half of the seventeenth century, probably for Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603—17). The somewhat playful practice of weaving an inscription into the form of an animal, bird, flower, or inanimate object such as a ship remains a popular tour de force among Islamic calligraphers to this day. Here, the inscription in divani script follows the outer curve of the elegant peacock's spread tail. It is composed of blessings for an unnamed Ottoman sultan and reverses direction halfway through. Because of the highly decorative nature of the page, the shift from the profile of the body of the bird to the frontal view of its tail does not appear incongruous.

 

As it is not only a religion but a way of life, Islam fostered the development of a distinctive culture with its own unique artistic language that is reflected in art and architecture throughout the Muslim world.

The lands newly conquered by the Muslims had their own preexisting artistic traditions and, initially at least, those artists who had worked under Byzantine or Sasanian patronage continued to work in their own indigenous styles but for Muslim patrons. The first examples of Islamic art therefore rely on earlier techniques, styles, and forms reflecting this blending of classical and Iranian decorative themes and motifs. Even religious monuments erected under Umayyad patronage that have a clearly Islamic function and meaning, such as the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, demonstrate this amalgam of Greco-Roman, Byzantine, and Sasanian elements. Only gradually, under the impact of the Muslim faith and nascent Islamic state, did a uniquely Islamic art emerge. The rule of the Umayyad caliphate (661–750) is often considered to be the formative period in Islamic art. One method of classifying Islamic art, used in the Islamic galleries at the Metropolitan Museum, is according to the dynasty reigning when the work of art was produced. This type of periodization follows the general precepts of Islamic history, which is divided into and punctuated by the rule of various dynasties, beginning with the Umayyad and cAbbasid dynasties that governed a vast and unified Islamic state, and concluding with the more regional, though powerful, dynasties such as the Safavids, Ottomans, and Mughals.
With its geographic spread and long history, Islamic art was inevitably subject to a wide ran

Citation

Department of Islamic Art. “The Nature of Islamic Art”. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/orna/hd_orna.htm (October 2001)

Suggested Further Readings

  • Bloom, Jonathan M., and Sheila S. Blair. The Art and Architecture of Islam, 1250–1800. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.
  • Ettinghausen, Richard, Oleg Grabar, and Marilyn Jenkins-Madina. Islamic Art and Architecture, 650–1250. 2d ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.

 

Related exhibitions and online features

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These related Museum Bulletin or Journal articles may or may not represent the most current scholarship.
  • Alexander, David G. “The Guarded Tablet.” Metropolitan Museum Journal, Vol. 24 (1989).
  • Ettinghausen, Richard. “The Flowering of Seljuq Art.” Metropolitan Museum Journal, Vol. 3 (1970).

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